Copernicus/np did/dod not/* question/vb it/ppo ,/, Ptolemy/np could/md not/* ./.
Given/vbn the/at conceptual/jj context/nn within/in which/wdt ancient/jj thought/nn thrived/vbd ,/, how/wrb could/md anyone/pn have/hv questioned/vbn this/dt principle/nn ?/. ?/.
The/at reasons/nns for/in this/dt are/ber partly/ql observational/jj ,/, partly/ql philosophical/jj ,/, and/cc reinforced/vbn by/in other/ap aesthetic/jj and/cc cultural/jj factors/nns ./.


	First/od ,/, the/at observational/jj reasons/nns ./.
The/at obvious/jj natural/jj fact/nn to/in ancient/jj thinkers/nns was/bedz the/at diurnal/jj rotation/nn of/in the/at heavens/nns ./.
Not/* only/rb did/dod constellations/nns like/cs Draco/np ,/, Cepheus/np ,/, and/cc Cassiopeia/np spin/vb circles/nns around/in the/at pole/nn ,/, but/cc stars/nns which/wdt were/bed not/* circumpolar/jj rose/vbd and/cc set/vbd at/in the/at same/ap place/nn on/in the/at horizon/nn each/dt night/nn ./.
Nor/cc did/dod a/at constellation's/nn$ stars/nns vary/vb in/in brightness/nn during/in the/at course/nn of/in their/pp$ nocturnal/jj flights/nns ./.
The/at conclusion/nn --/-- the/at distances/nns of/in the/at constellations/nns did/dod not/* vary/vb and/cc their/pp$ paths/nns were/bed circular/jj ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at sun's/nn$ path/nn over/in earth/nn described/vbd a/at segment/nn of/in a/at great/jj circle/nn ;/. ;/.
this/dt was/bedz clear/jj from/in the/at contour/nn of/in the/at shadow/nn traced/vbn by/in a/at gnomon/nn before/in and/cc after/in noon/nn ./.


	As/ql early/rb as/cs the/at 6th/od century/nn B.C./np the/at earth/nn was/bedz seen/vbn to/to be/be spherical/jj ./.
Ships/nns disappear/vb hull-first/rb over/in the/at horizon/nn ;/. ;/.
approaching/vbg shore/nn their/pp$ masts/nns appeared/vbd first/rb ./.
Earth/nn ,/, being/beg at/in the/at center/nn of/in the/at universe/nn ,/, would/md have/hv the/at same/ap shape/nn as/cs the/at latter/ap ;/. ;/.
so/rb ,/, e.g./rb did/dod Aristotle/np argue/vb ,/, although/cs this/dt may/md not/* be/be an/at observational/jj reason/nn in/in favor/nn of/in circularity/nn ./.
The/at discoid/jj shapes/nns of/in sun/nn and/cc moon/nn were/bed also/rb felt/vbn to/to indicate/vb the/at shape/nn of/in celestial/jj things/nns ./.


	In/in light/nn of/in all/abn this/dt ,/, one/cd would/md require/vb special/jj reasons/nns for/in saying/vbg that/cs the/at paths/nns of/in the/at heavenly/jj bodies/nns were/bed other/ap than/cs circular/jj ./.
Why/wrb ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, should/md the/at ancients/nns have/hv supposed/vbn the/at diurnal/jj rotation/nn of/in the/at heavens/nns to/to be/be elliptical/jj ?/. ?/.
Or/cc oviform/jj ?/. ?/.
Or/cc angular/jj ?/. ?/.
There/ex were/bed no/at reasons/nns for/in such/jj suppositions/nns then/rb ./.
This/dt ,/, conjoined/vbn with/in the/at considerations/nns above/rb ,/, made/vbd the/at circular/jj motions/nns of/in heavenly/jj bodies/nns appear/vb an/at almost/ql directly/rb observed/vbn fact/nn ./.


	Additional/jj philosophical/jj considerations/nns ,/, advanced/vbn notably/rb by/in Aristotle/np ,/, supported/vbd further/rbr the/at circularity/nn principle/nn ./.
By/in distinguishing/vbg superlunary/jj (/( celestial/jj )/) and/cc sublunary/jj (/( terrestrial/jj )/) existence/nn ,/, and/cc reinforcing/vbg this/dt with/in the/at four-element/jj physics/nn of/in Empedocles/np ,/, Aristotle/np came/vbd to/to speak/vb of/in the/at stars/nns as/cs perfect/jj bodies/nns ,/, which/wdt moved/vbd in/in only/rb a/at perfect/jj way/nn ,/, viz./rb in/in a/at perfect/jj circle/nn ./.


	Now/rb what/wdt is/bez perfect/jj motion/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps must/md ,/, apparently/rb ,/, be/be motion/nn without/in termini/nns ./.
Because/cs motion/nn which/wdt begins/vbz and/cc ends/vbz at/in discrete/jj places/nns would/md (/( e.g./rb for/in Aristotle/np )/) be/be incomplete/jj ./.
Circular/jj motion/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, since/cs it/pps is/bez eternal/jj and/cc perfectly/ql continuous/jj ,/, lacks/vbz termini/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez never/rb motion/nn towards/in something/pn ./.
Only/rb imcomplete/jj ,/, imperfect/jj things/nns move/vb towards/in what/wdt they/ppss lack/vb ./.
Perfect/jj ,/, complete/jj entities/nns ,/, if/cs they/ppss move/vb at/in all/abn ,/, do/do not/* move/vb towards/in what/wdt they/ppss lack/vb ./.
They/ppss move/vb only/rb in/in accordance/nn with/in what/wdt is/bez in/in their/pp$ natures/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, circular/jj motion/nn is/bez itself/ppl one/cd of/in the/at essential/jj characteristics/nns of/in completely/ql perfect/jj celestial/jj existence/nn ./.


	To/to return/vb now/rb to/in the/at four-element/jj physics/nn ,/, a/at mixture/nn of/in muddy/jj ,/, frothy/jj water/nn will/md ,/, when/wrb standing/vbg in/in a/at jar/nn ,/, separate/vb out/rp with/in earth/nn at/in the/at bottom/nn ,/, water/nn on/in top/nn ,/, and/cc the/at air/nn on/in top/nn of/in that/dt ./.
A/at candle/nn alight/jj in/in the/at air/nn directs/vbz its/pp$ flame/nn and/cc smoke/vb upwards/rb ./.
This/dt gives/vbz a/at clue/nn to/in the/at cosmical/jj order/nn of/in elements/nns ./.
Thus/rb earth/nn has/hvz fallen/vbn to/in the/at center/nn of/in the/at universe/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez covered/vbn (/( partly/rb )/) with/in water/nn ,/, air/nn is/bez atop/rb of/in that/dt ./.
Pure/jj fire/nn (/( the/at stars/nns )/) is/bez in/in the/at heavens/nns ./.
When/wrb combined/vbn with/in the/at metaphysical/jj notion/nn that/ql pure/jj forms/nns of/in this/dt universe/nn are/ber best/ql appreciated/vbn when/wrb least/ql embodied/vbn in/in a/at material/jj substratum/nn ,/, it/pps becomes/vbz clear/jj that/cs while/cs earth/nn will/md be/be dross/nn on/in a/at scale/nn of/in material-formal/jj ratios/nns ,/, celestial/jj bodies/nns will/md be/be of/in a/at subtle/jj ,/, quickened/vbn ,/, ethereal/jj existence/nn ,/, in/in whose/wp$ embodiment/nn pure/jj form/nn will/md be/be the/at dominant/jj component/nn and/cc matter/nn will/md be/be absent/jj or/cc remain/vb subsidiary/jj ./.


	The/at stars/nns constitute/vb an/at order/nn of/in existence/nn different/jj from/in what/wdt we/ppss encounter/vb on/in earth/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez clear/jj when/wrb one/pn distinguishes/vbz the/at types/nns of/in motion/nn appropriate/jj to/in both/abx regions/nns ./.
A/at projectile/nn shot/vbn up/rp from/in earth/nn returns/vbz rectlinearly/rb to/in its/pp$ '/' natural/jj '/' place/nn of/in rest/nn ./.
But/cc the/at natural/jj condition/nn for/in the/at heavenly/jj bodies/nns is/bez neither/cc rest/nn ,/, nor/cc rectilinear/jj motion/nn ./.
Being/beg less/ql encumbered/vbn by/in material/nn embodiments/nns they/ppss partake/vb more/rbr of/in what/wdt is/bez divine/jj ./.
Their/pp$ motion/nn will/md be/be eternal/jj and/cc perfect/jj ./.


	Let/vb us/ppo re-examine/vb the/at publicized/vbn contrasts/nns between/in Ptolemaic/jj and/cc Copernican/jj astronomy/nn ./.
Bluntly/rb ,/, there/ex never/rb was/bedz a/at Ptolemaic/jj system/nn of/in astronomy/nn ./.
Copernicus'/np$ achievement/nn was/bedz to/to have/hv invented/vbn systematic/jj astronomy/nn ./.
The/at-tl Almagest/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Hypotheses/nns-tl outline/vb Ptolemy's/np$ conception/nn of/in his/pp$ own/jj task/nn as/cs the/at provision/nn of/in computational/jj tables/nns ,/, independent/jj calculating/vbg devices/nns for/in the/at prediction/nn of/in future/jj planetary/jj perturbations/nns ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, in/in the/at Halma/np edition/nn of/in Theon's/np$ presentation/nn of/in The/at-tl Hypotheses/nns-tl there/ex is/bez a/at chart/nn setting/vbg out/rp (/( under/in six/cd distinct/jj headings/nns )/) otherwise/rb unrelated/jj diagrams/nns for/in describing/vbg the/at planetary/jj motions/nns ./.
No/at attempt/nn is/bez made/vbn by/in Ptolemy/np to/to weld/vb into/in a/at single/ap scheme/nn (/( a-la-Aristotle/rb )/) ,/, these/dts independent/jj predicting-machines/nns ./.
They/ppss all/abn have/hv this/dt in/in common/jj :/: the/at earth/nn is/bez situated/vbn near/in the/at center/nn of/in the/at deferent/nn ./.
But/cc that/cs one/pn should/md superimpose/vb all/abn these/dts charts/nns ,/, run/vb a/at pin/nn through/in the/at common/jj point/nn ,/, and/cc then/rb scale/vb each/dt planetary/jj deferent/nn larger/jjr and/cc smaller/jjr (/( to/to keep/vb the/at epicycles/nns from/in '/' bumping/vbg '/' )/) ,/, this/dt is/bez contrary/jj to/in any/dti intention/nn Ptolemy/np ever/rb expresses/vbz ./.
He/pps might/md even/rb suppose/vb the/at planets/nns to/to move/vb at/in infinity/nn ./.
Ptolemy's/np$ problem/nn is/bez to/to forecast/vb where/wrb ,/, against/in the/at inverted/vbn bowl/nn of/in night/nn ,/, some/dti particular/jj light/nn will/md be/be found/vbn at/in future/jj times/nns ./.
His/pp$ problem/nn concerns/vbz longitudes/nns ,/, latitudes/nns ,/, and/cc angular/jj velocities/nns ./.
The/at distances/nns of/in these/dts points/nns of/in light/nn is/bez a/at problem/nn he/pps cannot/md* master/vb ,/, beyond/in crude/jj conjectures/nns as/in to/in the/at orderings/nns of/in the/at planetary/jj orbits/nns viewed/vbn outward/rb from/in earth/nn ./.
But/cc none/pn of/in this/dt has/hvz prevented/vbn scientists/nns ,/, philosophers/nns ,/, and/cc even/rb historians/nns of/in science/nn ,/, from/in speaking/vbg of/in the/at Ptolemaic/jj system/nn ,/, in/in contrast/nn to/in the/at Copernican/jj ./.
This/dt is/bez a/at mistake/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez engendered/vbn by/in confounding/vbg the/at Aristotelian/jj cosmology/nn in/in The/at-tl Almagest/np-tl with/in the/at geocentric/jj astronomy/nn ./.


	Ptolemy/np recurrently/rb denies/vbz that/cs he/pps could/md ever/rb explain/vb planetary/jj motion/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez what/wdt necessitates/vbz the/at nonsystematic/jj character/nn of/in his/pp$ astronomy/nn ./.
So/rb when/wrb textbooks/nns ,/, like/cs that/dt of/in Baker/np set/vb out/rp drawings/nns of/in the/at '/' Ptolemaic/jj System/nn-tl '/' ,/, complete/jj with/in earth/nn in/in-tl the/at center/nn and/cc the/at-tl seven/cd heavenly/jj bodies/nns epicyclically/rb arranged/vbn on/in their/pp$ several/ap deferents/nns ,/, we/ppss have/hv nothing/pn but/in a/at misleading/vbg 20th-century/nn idea/nn of/in what/wdt never/rb existed/vbd historically/rb ./.


	It/pps is/bez the/at chief/jjs merit/nn in/in Copernicus'/np$ work/nn that/cs all/abn his/pp$ planetary/jj calculations/nns are/ber interdependent/jj ./.
He/pps cannot/md* ,/, e.g./rb compute/vb the/at retrograde/jj arc/nn traveled/vbn by/in Mars/np ,/, without/in also/rb making/vbg suppositions/nns about/in the/at earth's/nn$ own/jj motion/nn ./.
He/pps cannot/md* describe/vb eclipses/nns without/in entertaining/vbg some/dti form/nn of/in a/at three-body/jj problem/nn ./.
In/in Ptolemaic/jj terms/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, eclipses/nns and/cc retrograde/jj motion/nn were/bed phenomena/nns simpliciter/fw-rb ,/, to/to be/be explained/vbn directly/rb as/cs possible/jj resultants/nns of/in epicyclical/jj combinations/nns ./.
In/in a/at systematic/jj astronomy/nn ,/, like/cs that/dt of/in Copernicus/np ,/, retrogradations/nns become/vb part/nn of/in the/at conceptual/jj structure/nn of/in the/at system/nn ;/. ;/.
they/ppss are/ber no/ql longer/rbr a/at puzzling/jj aspect/nn of/in intricately/ql variable/jj ,/, local/jj planetary/jj motions/nns ./.


	Another/dt contrast/nn stressed/vbn when/wrb discussing/vbg Ptolemaic/jj vs./in Copernican/jj astronomy/nn ,/, turns/vbz on/in the/at idea/nn of/in simplicity/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez often/rb stated/vbn that/cs Copernican/jj astronomy/nn is/bez '/' simpler/jjr '/' than/cs Ptolemaic/jj ./.
Some/dti even/rb say/vb that/cs this/dt is/bez the/at reason/nn for/in the/at ultimate/jj acceptance/nn of/in the/at former/ap ./.
Thus/rb ,/, Margenau/np remarks/vbz :/: ``/`` A/at large/jj number/nn of/in unrelated/jj epicycles/nns was/bedz needed/vbn to/to explain/vb the/at observations/nns ,/, but/cc otherwise/rb the/at (/( Ptolemaic/jj )/) system/nn served/vbd well/rb and/cc with/in quantitative/jj precision/nn ./.
Copernicus/np ,/, by/in placing/vbg the/at sun/nn at/in the/at center/nn of/in the/at planetary/jj universe/nn ,/, was/bedz able/jj to/to reduce/vb the/at number/nn of/in epicycles/nns from/in eighty-three/cd to/in seventeen/cd ./.
Historical/jj records/nns indicate/vb that/cs Copernicus/np was/bedz unaware/jj of/in the/at fundamental/jj aspects/nns of/in his/pp$ so-called/jj '/' revolution/nn '/' ,/, unaware/jj perhaps/rb of/in its/pp$ historical/jj importance/nn ,/, he/pps rested/vbd content/jj with/in having/hvg produced/vbn a/at simpler/jjr scheme/nn for/in prediction/nn ./.
As/cs an/at illustration/nn of/in the/at principle/nn of/in simplicity/nn the/at heliocentric/jj discovery/nn has/hvz a/at peculiar/jj appeal/nn because/cs it/pps allows/vbz simplicity/nn to/to be/be arithmetized/vbn ;/. ;/.
it/pps involves/vbz a/at reduction/nn in/in the/at number/nn of/in epicycles/nns from/in eighty-three/cd to/in seventeen/cd ''/'' ./.


	Without/in careful/jj qualification/nn this/dt can/md be/be misleading/vbg ./.
If/cs in/in any/dti one/cd calculation/nn Ptolemy/np had/hvd had/hvn to/to invoke/vb 83/cd epicycles/nns all/abn at/in once/rb ,/, while/cs Copernicus/np never/rb required/vbd more/ap than/in one/cd third/od this/dt number/nn ,/, then/rb (/( in/in the/at sense/nn obvious/jj to/in Margenau/np )/) Ptolemaic/jj astronomy/nn would/md be/be simpler/jjr than/cs Copernican/jj ./.
But/cc no/at single/ap planetary/jj problem/nn ever/rb required/vbd of/in Ptolemy/np more/ap than/in six/cd epicycles/nns at/in one/cd time/nn ./.
This/dt ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, results/vbz from/in the/at non-systematic/jj ,/, '/' cellular/jj '/' character/nn of/in Ptolemaic/jj theory/nn ./.
Calculations/nns within/in the/at Copernican/jj framework/nn always/rb raised/vbd questions/nns about/in planetary/jj configurations/nns ./.
These/dts could/md be/be met/vbn only/rb by/in considering/in the/at dynamical/jj elements/nns of/in several/ap planets/nns at/in one/cd time/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez more/ql ambitious/jj than/cs Ptolemy/np is/bez ever/rb required/vbn to/to be/be when/wrb he/pps faces/vbz his/pp$ isolated/vbn problems/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, in/in no/at ordinary/jj sense/nn of/in '/' simplicity/nn '/' is/bez the/at Ptolemaic/jj theory/nn simpler/jjr than/cs the/at Copernican/jj ./.
The/at latter/ap required/vbd juggling/vbg several/ap elements/nns simultaneously/rb ./.
This/dt was/bedz not/* simpler/jjr but/cc much/ql more/ql difficult/jj than/cs exercises/nns within/in Ptolemy's/np$ astronomy/nn ./.


	Analogously/rb ,/, anyone/pn who/wps argues/vbz that/cs Einstein's/np$ theory/nn of/in gravitation/nn is/bez simpler/jjr than/cs Newton's/np$ ,/, must/md say/vb rather/ql more/ap to/to explain/vb how/wrb it/pps is/bez that/cs the/at latter/ap is/bez mastered/vbn by/in student-physicists/nns ,/, while/cs the/at former/ap can/md be/be managed/vbn (/( with/in difficulty/nn )/) only/rb by/in accomplished/vbn experts/nns ./.


	In/in a/at sense/nn ,/, Einstein's/np$ theory/nn is/bez simpler/jjr than/cs Newton's/np$ ,/, and/cc there/ex is/bez a/at corresponding/jj sense/nn in/in which/wdt Copernicus'/np$ theory/nn is/bez simpler/jjr than/cs Ptolemy's/np$ ./.
But/cc '/' simplicity/nn '/' here/rb refers/vbz to/in systematic/jj simplicity/nn ./.
The/at number/nn of/in primitive/jj ideas/nns in/in systematically-simple/jj theories/nns is/bez reduced/vbn to/in a/at minimum/nn ./.
The/at Axioms/nns-tl required/vbn to/to make/vb the/at theoretical/jj machinery/nn operate/vb are/ber set/vbn out/rp tersely/rb and/cc powerfully/rb ,/, so/cs that/cs all/abn permissible/jj operations/nns within/in the/at theory/nn can/md be/be traced/vbn rigorously/rb back/rb to/in these/dts axioms/nns ,/, rules/nns ,/, and/cc primitive/jj notions/nns ./.
This/dt characterizes/vbz Euclid's/np$ formulation/nn of/in geometry/nn ,/, but/cc not/* Ptolemy's/np$ astronomy/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber in/in The/at-tl Almagest/np-tl no/at rules/nns for/in determining/vbg in/in advance/nn whether/cs a/at new/jj epicycle/nn will/md be/be required/vbn for/in dealing/vbg with/in abberations/nns in/in lunar/jj ,/, solar/jj ,/, or/cc planetary/jj behavior/nn ./.
The/at strongest/jjt appeal/nn of/in the/at Copernican/jj formulation/nn consisted/vbd in/in just/rb this/dt :/: ideally/rb ,/, the/at justification/nn for/in dealing/vbg with/in special/jj problems/nns in/in particular/jj ways/nns is/bez completely/rb set/vbn out/rp in/in the/at basic/jj '/' rules/nns '/' of/in the/at theory/nn ./.
The/at lower-level/nn hypotheses/nns are/ber never/rb '/' ad/fw-in hoc/fw-pn '/' ,/, never/rb introduced/vbn ex/fw-in post/fw-in facto/fw-nn just/rb to/to sweep/vb up/rp within/in the/at theory/nn some/dti recalcitrant/jj datum/nn ./.
Copernicus/np ,/, to/in an/at extent/nn unachieved/jj by/in Ptolemy/np ,/, approximated/vbd to/in Euclid's/np$ vision/nn ./.
De/fw-in-tl Revolutionibus/fw-nns-tl is/bez not/* just/rb a/at collection/nn of/in facts/nns and/cc techniques/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez an/at organized/vbn system/nn of/in these/dts things/nns ./.
Solving/vbg astronomical/jj problems/nns requires/vbz ,/, for/in Copernicus/np ,/, not/* a/at random/jj search/nn of/in unrelated/jj tables/nns ,/, but/cc a/at regular/jj employment/nn of/in the/at rules/nns defining/vbg the/at entire/jj discipline/nn ./.


	Hence/rb ,/, noting/vbg the/at simplicity/nn achieved/vbn in/in Copernicus'/np$ formulation/nn does/doz not/* provide/vb another/dt reason/nn for/in the/at acceptance/nn of/in De/fw-in-tl Revolutionibus/fw-nns-tl ,/, another/dt reason/nn beyond/in its/pp$ systematic/jj superiority/nn ./.
It/pps provides/vbz exactly/rb the/at same/ap reason/nn ./.


	1543/cd A.D./rb is/bez often/rb venerated/vbn as/cs the/at birthday/nn of/in the/at scientific/jj revolution/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez really/rb the/at funeral/nn day/nn of/in scholastic/jj science/nn ./.
Granted/vbn ,/, the/at cosmological/jj ,/, philosophical/jj ,/, and/cc cultural/jj reverberations/nns initiated/vbn by/in the/at De/fw-in-tl Revolutionibus/fw-nns-tl were/bed felt/vbn with/in increasing/vbg violence/nn during/in the/at 300/cd years/nns to/to follow/vb ./.
But/cc ,/, considered/vbn within/in technical/jj astronomy/nn ,/, a/at different/jj pattern/nn can/md be/be traced/vbn ./.


	In/in what/wdt does/doz the/at dissatisfaction/nn of/in Copernicus-the-astronomer/np consist/vb ?/. ?/.
What/wdt in/in The/at-tl Almagest/np-tl draws/vbz his/pp$ fire/nn ?/. ?/.
Geocentricism/nn per/in se/fw-ppl ?/. ?/.
No/rb ./.
The/at formal/jj displacement/nn of/in the/at geocentric/jj principle/nn far/ql from/in being/beg Copernicus'/np$ primary/jj concern/nn ,/, was/bedz introduced/vbn only/rb to/to resolve/vb what/wdt seemed/vbd to/in him/ppo intolerable/jj in/in orthodox/jj astronomy/nn ,/, namely/rb ,/, the/at '/' unphysical/jj '/' triplication/nn of/in centric/jj reference-points/nns :/: one/cd center/nn from/in which/wdt the/at planet's/nn$ distances/nns were/bed calculated/vbn ,/, another/dt around/in which/wdt planetary/jj velocities/nns were/bed computed/vbn ,/, and/cc still/rb a/at third/od center/nn (/( the/at earth/nn )/) from/in which/wdt the/at observations/nns originated/vbd ./.
This/dt arrangement/nn was/bedz for/in Copernicus/np literally/ql monstrous/jj :/: ``/`` With/in (/( the/at Ptolemaists/nps )/) it/pps is/bez as/ql though/cs an/at artist/nn were/bed to/to gather/vb the/at hands/nns ,/, feet/nns ,/, head/nn and/cc other/ap members/nns for/in his/pp$ images/nns from/in divers/jj models/nns ,/, each/dt part/nn excellently/ql drawn/vbn ,/, but/cc not/* related/vbn to/in a/at single/ap body/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc since/cs they/ppss in/in no/at way/nn match/vb each/dt other/ap ,/, the/at result/nn would/md be/be a/at monster/nn rather/in than/in a/at man/nn ''/'' ./.


	Copernicus/np required/vbd a/at systematically/ql integrated/vbn ,/, physically/ql intelligible/jj astronomy/nn ./.
His/pp$ objective/nn was/bedz ,/, essentially/rb ,/, to/to repair/vb those/dts aspects/nns of/in orthodox/jj astronomy/nn responsible/jj for/in its/pp$ deficiencies/nns in/in achieving/vbg these/dts ends/nns ./.
That/cs such/jj deficiencies/nns existed/vbd within/in Ptolemy's/np$ theory/nn was/bedz not/* discovered/vbn de/fw-in novo/fw-nn by/in Copernicus/np ./.
The/at critical/jj ,/, rigorous/jj examinations/nns of/in Nicholas/np-tl of/in-tl Cusa/np-tl and/cc Nicholas/np-tl of/in-tl Oresme/np-tl provided/vbd the/at context/nn (/( a/at late/jj medieval/jj context/nn )/) for/in Nicholas/np Copernicus'/np$ own/jj work/nn ./.
The/at latter/ap looked/vbd backward/rb upon/in inherited/vbn deficiencies/nns ./.
Without/in abandoning/vbg too/ql much/ap ,/, Copernicus/np sought/vbd to/to make/vb orthodox/jj astronomy/nn systematically/rb and/cc mechanically/rb acceptable/jj ./.
He/pps did/dod not/* think/vb himself/ppl to/to be/be firing/vbg the/at first/od shot/nn of/in an/at intellectual/jj revolution/nn ./.

