Turtle.Tutorial

turtle-1.3.1: Shell programming, Haskell-style

Safe Haskell | None
Language | Haskell2010

Turtle.Tutorial

Contents

- Introduction
- Comparison
- Subroutines
- Types
- Shell
- Type signatures
- System
- String formatting
- Streams
- Loops
- Folds
- Input and output
- External commands
- Patterns
- Exception Safety
- MonadIO
- MonadManaged
- Command line options
- Conclusion
- FAQ

Description

Use `turtle` if you want to write light-weight and maintainable shell scripts.

`turtle` embeds shell scripting directly within Haskell for three main reasons:

- Haskell code is easy to refactor and maintain because the language is statically typed
- Haskell is syntactically lightweight, thanks to global type inference
- Haskell programs can be type-checked and interpreted very rapidly (< 1 second)

These features make Haskell ideal for scripting, particularly for replacing large and unwieldy Bash scripts.

This tutorial introduces how to use the `turtle` library to write Haskell scripts. This assumes no prior knowledge of Haskell, but does assume prior knowledge of Bash or a similar shell scripting language.

If you are already proficient with Haskell, then you can get quickly up to speed by reading the Quick Start guide at the top of Turtle.Prelude.

If you are on Windows, the easiest way to follow along is to install Git for Windows and use the Git Bash program that it installs to get a fully featured Unix-like environment.

For all operating systems, the recommended way to compile and run the following examples is to download the `stack` package management tool by following the instructions here:

https://github.com/commercialhaskell/stack

... and then run the following instruction anywhere outside of a Haskell project:

    $ stack install turtle

This tutorial will mostly focus on using Haskell as a scripting language. The first two lines of each script below contain boilerplate instructions so that `stack` will load and run the script. This helps ensure that a script will run on any computer that has a `stack` executable, as `stack` can install a Haskell compiler if one is not already present. If you are curious about how these two lines work, they are described here:

https://github.com/commercialhaskell/stack/blob/master/doc/GUIDE.md#ghcrunghc

If you want to make a Windows script independently executable outside of a Git Bash environment, you can either (A) compile the script into an executable or (B) run these two commands from a `cmd` shell with administrator privileges to make all `*.hs` scripts executable:

    assoc .hs=Haskell
    ftype Haskell="C:\path\to\stack.exe" "%1" %*

Synopsis

# Introduction

Let's translate some simple Bash scripts to Haskell and work our way up to more complex scripts. Here is an example "Hello, world!" script written in both languages:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                        -- #!/bin/bash
    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}  --
                                        --
    import Turtle                       --
                                        --
    main = echo "Hello, world!"         -- echo Hello, world!

In Haskell you can use `--` to comment out the rest of a line. The above example uses comments to show the equivalent Bash script side-by-side with the Haskell script.

You can execute the above code by saving it to the file `example.hs`. If you are copying and pasting the code, then remove the leading 1-space indent. After you save the file, make the script executable and run the script:

    $ chmod u+x example.hs
    $ ./example.hs
    Hello, world!

If you delete the first two lines of the program, you can also compile the above code to generate a native executable which will have a much faster startup time and improved performance:

    $ # `-O2` turns on all optimizations
    $ # `-threaded` helps with piping shell output in and out of Haskell
    $ stack ghc -- -O2 -threaded example.hs
    $ ./example
    Hello, world!

You can even run Haskell code interactively using `ghci`, which is an interactive REPL for Haskell. You can either use `ghci` by itself:

    $ stack ghci
    <ghci links in some libraries>
    Prelude> :set -XOverloadedStrings
    Prelude> import Turtle
    Prelude Turtle> echo "Hello, world!"
    <ghci links in some libraries>
    Hello, world!
    Prelude Turtle> :quit
    $

From now on I'll omit `ghci`'s linker output in tutorial examples. You can also silence this linker output by passing `--ghc-options -v0` to `stack ghci`.

# Comparison

You'll already notice a few differences between the Haskell code and Bash code.

First, the Haskell code requires two additional lines of overhead to import the `turtle` library and enable overloading of string literals. This overhead is mostly unavoidable.

Second, the Haskell `echo` explicitly quotes its string argument whereas the Bash `echo` does not. In Bash every token is a string by default and you distinguish variables by prepending a dollar sign to them. In Haskell the situation is reversed: every token is a variable by default and you distinguish strings by quoting them. The following example highlights the difference:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                        -- #!/bin/bash
    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}  --
                                        --
    import Turtle                       --
                                        --
    str = "Hello!"                      --STR=Hello!
                                        --
    main = echo str                     --echo $STR

Third, you have to explicitly assign a subroutine to `main` to specify which subroutine to run when your program begins. This is because Haskell lets you define things out of order. For example, we could have written our original program this way instead:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    main = echo str

    str = "Hello, world!"

Notice how the above program defines `str` after `main`, which is valid. Haskell does not care in what order you define top-level values or functions (using the `=` sign). However, the top level of a Haskell program only permits definitions. If you were to insert a statement at the top-level:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    echo "Hello, world!"

... then you would get this error when you tried to run your program:

    example.hs:7:1: Parse error: naked expression at top level

# Subroutines

You can use `do` notation to create a subroutine that runs more than one command:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                        -- #!/bin/bash
    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}  --
                                        --
    import Turtle                       --
                                        --
    main = do                           --
        echo "Line 1"                   -- echo Line 1
        echo "Line 2"                   -- echo Line 2

    $ ./example.hs
    Line 1
    Line 2

`do` blocks can use either use the indentation level to control their duration or they can use curly braces and semicolons. To see the full rules for `do` syntax, read: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Haskell/Indentation.

Some commands can return a value, and you can store the result of a command using the `<-` symbol. For example, the following program prints the creation time of the current working directory by storing two intermediate results:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                               -- #!/bin/bash
    import Turtle              --
                               --
    main = do                  --
        dir  <- pwd            -- DIR=$(pwd)
        time <- datefile dir   -- TIME=$(date -r $DIR)
        print time             -- echo $TIME

    $ ./example.hs
    2015-01-24 03:40:31 UTC

The main difference between `=` and `<-` is that:

- The `<-` symbol is overloaded and its meaning is context-dependent; in this context it just means "store the current result"
- The `=` symbol is not overloaded and always means that the two sides of the equality are interchangeable

`do` notation lets you combine smaller subroutines into larger subroutines. For example, we could refactor the above code to split the first two commands into their own smaller subroutine and then invoke that smaller subroutine within a larger subroutine:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                -- #!/bin/bash
    import Turtle               --
                                --
    datePwd = do                -- datePwd() {
        dir    <- pwd           --     DIR=$(pwd)
        result <- datefile dir  --     RESULT=$(date -r $DIR)
        return result           --     echo $RESULT
                                -- }
    main = do                   --
        time <- datePwd         -- TIME=$(datePwd)
        print time              -- echo $TIME

The refactored program still returns the exact same result:

    $ ./example.hs
    2015-01-24 03:40:31 UTC

We can also simplify the code a little bit because `do` notation implicitly returns the value of the last command within a subroutine. We can use this trick to simplify both the Haskell and Bash code:

    datePwd = do      -- datePwd() {
        dir <- pwd    --     DIR=$(pwd)
        datefile dir  --     date -r $DIR
                      -- }

However, keep in mind that the `return` statement is something of a misnomer since it does not break or exit from the surrounding subroutine. All it does is create a trivial subroutine that has no side effects and returns its argument as its result. If you `return` an expression, you're just giving it a new name:

    do x <- return expr  -- X=EXPR
       command x         -- command $X

    -- Same as:
    command expr         -- command EXPR

In fact, the first line is equivalent to `let x = expr`, which more closely mirrors the equivalent Bash syntax:

    do let x = expr      -- X=EXPR
       command x         -- command $X

    -- Same as:
    command expr         -- command EXPR

Also, for a subroutine with a single command, you can omit the `do`:

    main = do echo "Hello, world!"

    -- Same as:
    main =    echo "Hello, world!"

# Types

Notice how the above Haskell example used `print` instead of `echo`. Run the following script to find out what happens if we choose `echo` instead:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    import Turtle

    main = do
        dir  <- pwd
        time <- datefile dir
        echo time

If we run that we get a type error:

    $ ./example.hs

    example.hs:8:10:
        Couldn't match expected type `Line' with actual type `UTCTime'
        In the first argument of `echo', namely `time'
        In a stmt of a 'do' block: echo time
        In the expression:
          do { dir <- pwd;
               time <- datefile dir;
               echo time }

The error points to the last line of our program: `(example.hs:8:10)` means line 8, column 10 of our program. If you study the error message closely you'll see that the `echo` function expects a `Line` value (a piece of text without newlines), but we passed it `'time'`, which was a `UTCTime` value. Although the error is at the end of our script, Haskell catches this error before even running the script. When we "interpret" a Haskell script the Haskell compiler actually compiles the script without any optimizations to generate a temporary executable and then runs the executable, much like Perl does for Perl scripts.

You might wonder: "where are the types?" None of the above programs had any type signatures or type annotations, yet the compiler still detected type errors correctly. This is because Haskell uses "global type inference" to detect errors, meaning that the compiler can infer the types of expressions within the program without any assistance from the programmer.

You can even ask the compiler what the type of an expression is using `ghci`. Let's open up the REPL and import this library so that we can study the types and deduce why our program failed:

    $ stack ghci
    Prelude> import Turtle
    Prelude Turtle>

You can interrogate the REPL for an expression's type using the `:type` command:

    Prelude Turtle> :type pwd
    pwd :: MonadIO io => io Turtle.FilePath

For right now, ignore all occurrences of `MonadIO` and just read the type as:

    Prelude Turtle> :type pwd
    pwd :: IO Turtle.FilePath

We will cover `MonadIO` later on.

Whenever you see something of the form `(x :: t)`, that means that `'x'` is a value of type `'t'`. The REPL says that `pwd` is a subroutine (`IO`) that returns a `FilePath`. The Turtle prefix before `FilePath` is just the module name since the `FilePath` exported by the `turtle` library conflicts with the default `FilePath` exported by Haskell's `Prelude`. The compiler uses the fully qualified name, `Turtle.`FilePath``, to avoid ambiguity.

We can similarly ask for the type of `datefile`:

    Prelude Turtle> :type datefile
    datefile :: Turtle.FilePath -> IO UTCTime

`datefile` is a function whose argument must be a `FilePath` and whose result is a subroutine (`IO`) that returns a `UTCTime`. Notice how the input argument of `datefile` (which is a `FilePath`) is the same type as the return value of `pwd` (also a `FilePath`).

Now let's study type of `echo` to see why we get the type error:

    Prelude Turtle> :type echo
    echo :: Text -> IO ()

The above type says that `echo` is a function whose argument is a value of type `Text` and whose result is a subroutine (`IO`) with an empty return value (denoted `'()'`).

Now we can understand the type error: `echo` expects a `Text` argument but `datefile` returns a `UTCTime`, which is not the same thing. Unlike Bash, not everything is `Text` in Haskell and the compiler will not cast or coerce types for you.

The reason `print` worked is because `print` has a more general type than `echo`:

    Prelude Turtle> :type print
    print :: Show a => a -> IO ()

This type signature says that `print` can display any value of type `'a'` so long as `'a'` implements the `Show` interface. In this case `UTCTime` does implement the `Show` interface, so everything works out when we use `print`.

This library provides a helper function that lets you convert any type that implements `Show` into a `Text` value:

    -- This behaves like Python's `repr` function
    repr :: Show a => a -> Text

You could therefore implement `print` in terms of `echo` and `repr`:

     print x = echo (repr x)

# Shell

You can use `ghci` for more than just inferring types. `ghci` is a general-purpose Haskell shell for your system when you extend it with `turtle`:

@

# Type signatures

Haskell performs global type inference, meaning that the compiler never requires any type signatures. When you add type signatures, they are purely for the benefit of the programmer and behave like machine-checked documentation.

Let's illustrate this by adding types to our original script:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    import Turtle

    datePwd :: IO UTCTime  -- Type signature
    datePwd = do
        dir <- pwd
        datefile dir

    main :: IO ()          -- Type signature
    main = do
        time <- datePwd
        print time

The first type signature says that `datePwd` is a subroutine that returns a `UTCTime`:

    --         +----- A subroutine ...
    --         |
    --         |  +-- ... that returns `UTCTime`
    --         |  |
    --         v  v
    datePwd :: IO UTCTime

The second type signature says that `main` is a subroutine that returns an empty value:

    --      +----- A subroutine ...
    --      |
    --      |  +-- ... that returns an empty value (i.e. `()`)
    --      |  |
    --      v  v
    main :: IO ()

Not every top-level value has to be a subroutine, though. For example, you can define unadorned `Line` values at the top-level, as we saw previously:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    str :: Line
    str = "Hello!"

    main :: IO ()
    main = echo str

These type annotations do not assist the compiler. Instead, the compiler independently infers the type and then checks whether it matches the documented type. If there is a mismatch the compiler will raise a type error.

Let's test this out by providing an incorrect type for `'str'`:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    str :: Int
    str = "Hello!"

    main :: IO ()
    main = echo str

If you run that script, you will get two error messages:

    $ ./example.hs

    example.hs:8:7:
        No instance for (IsString Int)
          arising from the literal `"Hello, world!"'
        Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (IsString Int)
        In the expression: "Hello, world!"
        In an equation for `str': str = "Hello, world!"

    example.hs:11:13:
        Couldn't match expected type `Line' with actual type `Int'
        In the first argument of `echo', namely `str'
        In the expression: echo str
        In an equation for `main': main = echo str

The first error message relates to the `OverloadedStrings` extensions. When we enable `OverloadedStrings` the compiler overloads string literals, interpreting them as any type that implements the `IsString` interface. The error message says that `Int` does not implement the `IsString` interface so the compiler cannot interpret a string literal as an `Int`. On the other hand the `Text`, `Line` and `FilePath` types do implement `IsString`, which is why we can interpret string literals as `Text`, `Line` or `FilePath` values.

The second error message says that `echo` expects a `Line` value, but we declared `str` to be an `Int`, so the compiler aborts compilation, requiring us to either fix or delete our type signature.

Notice that there is nothing wrong with the program other than the type signature we added. If we were to delete the type signature the program would compile and run correctly. The sole purpose of this type signature is for us to communicate our expectations to the compiler so that the compiler can alert us if the code does not match our expectations.

Let's also try reversing the type error, providing a number where we expect a string:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    str :: Line
    str = 4

    main :: IO ()
    main = echo str

This gives a different error:

    $ ./example.hs

    example.hs:8:7:
        No instance for (Num Line)
          arising from the literal `4'
        Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Num Line)
        In the expression: 4
        In an equation for `str': str = 4

Haskell also automatically overloads numeric literals, too. The compiler interprets integer literals as any type that implements the `Num` interface. The `Line` type does not implement the `Num` interface, so we cannot interpret integer literals as `Line` strings.

# System

You can invoke arbitrary shell commands using the `shell` command. For example, we can write a program that creates an empty directory and then uses a `shell` command to archive the directory:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                                 -- #!/bin/bash
    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}           --
                                                 --
    import Turtle                                --
                                                 --
    main = do                                    --
        mkdir "test"                             -- mkdir test
        shell "tar czf test.tar.gz test" empty   -- tar czf test.tar.gz test

If you run this program, it will generate the `test.tar.gz` archive:

    $ ./example.hs
    ExitSuccess
    $ echo $?
    0
    $ ls test.tar.gz
    test.tar.gz

Like `ghci`, the `runhaskell` command running our script prints any non-empty result of the `main` subroutine (`ExitSuccess` in this case).

The easiest way to learn a new command like `shell` is to view its documentation. Click on the word `shell`, which will take you to documentation that looks like this:

    shell
        :: Text         -- Command line
        -> Shell Line   -- Standard input (as lines of `Text`)
        -> IO ExitCode  -- Exit code of the shell command

The first argument is a `Text` representation of the command to run. The second argument lets you feed input to the command, and you can provide `empty` for now to feed no input.

The final result is an `ExitCode`, which you can use to detect whether the command completed successfully. For example, we could print a more descriptive error message if an external command fails:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    main = do
        let cmd = "false"
        x <- shell cmd empty
        case x of
            ExitSuccess   -> return ()
            ExitFailure n -> die (cmd <> " failed with exit code: " <> repr n)

This prints an error message since the `false` command always fails:

    $ ./example.hs
    example.hs: user error (false failed with exit code: 1)

You should also check out the `proc` command, which is less powerful but safer since it decreases the likelihood of code injection or malformed commands:

    proc
        :: Text         -- Program
        -> [Text]       -- Arguments
        -> Shell Line   -- Standard input (as lines of `Text`)
        -> IO ExitCode  -- Exit code of the shell command

Most of the commands in this library do not actually invoke an external shell or program. Instead, they indirectly wrap other Haskell libraries that bind to C code.

Also, some people prefer that subprocess runners throw exceptions instead of returning an `ExitCode`. `procs` and `shells` are the exception-throwing variations on `proc` and `shell`.

# String formatting

This library provides type-safe string formatting utilities, too. For example, instead of writing this:

     cmd <> " failed with exit code: " <> repr n

... you could format the string using `printf` style instead:

     format (s%" failed with exit code: "%d) cmd n

What's neat is that the compiler will automatically infer the number of arguments and their types from the `Format` string:

    $ stack ghci
    Prelude Turtle> :type format (s%" failed with exit code: "%d)
    format (s%" failed with exit code: "%d) :: Text -> Int -> Text

The compiler deduces that the above `Format` string requires one argument of type `Text` to satisfy the `s` at the beginning of the format string and another argument of type `Int` to satisfy the `d` at the end of the format string.

Note that this is also the idiomatic way to convert a `FilePath` to `Text`:

    format fp :: FilePath -> Text

For the very common case where you `echo` a formatted value, you can use `printf`:

    >>> printf ("Hello, "%s%"!\n") "world"
    Hello, world!

If you are interested in this feature, check out the Turtle.Format module for more details. For more complex string formatting needs, check out the `text-format` library.

# Streams

The `turtle` library provides support for streaming computations, just like Bash. The primitive `turtle` streams are little more verbose than their Bash counterparts, but `turtle` streams can be built and combined in more ways.

The key type for streams is the `Shell` type, which represents a stream of values. For example, the `ls` function has a streaming result:

    Prelude Turtle> :type ls
    ls :: Turtle.FilePath -> Shell Turtle.FilePath

That type says that `ls` takes a single `FilePath` as its argument (the directory to list) and the result is a `Shell` stream of `FilePath`s (the immediate children of that directory).

You can't run a `Shell` stream directly within `ghci`. You will get a type error like this if you try:

    Prelude Turtle> ls "/tmp"

    <interactive>:2:1:
        No instance for (Show (Shell Turtle.FilePath))
          arising from a use of `print'
        Possible fix:
          add an instance declaration for (Show (Shell Turtle.FilePath))
        In a stmt of an interactive GHCi command: print it

Instead, you must consume the stream as it is generated and the simplest way to consume a `Shell` stream is `view`:

    view :: Show a => Shell a -> IO ()

`view` takes any `Shell` stream of values and `print`s them to standard output:

    Prelude Turtle> view (ls "/tmp")
    FilePath "/tmp/.X11-unix"
    FilePath "/tmp/.X0-lock"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PKdhtXMmr18n"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-xHYcZ3zmN3Fv"
    FilePath "/tmp/tracker-gabriel"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PYi1hSlWgNj2"
    FilePath "/tmp/orbit-gabriel"
    FilePath "/tmp/ssh-vREYGbWGpiCa"
    FilePath "/tmp/.ICE-unix

You can build your own `Shell` streams using a few primitive operations,

The first primitive is `empty`, which represents an empty stream of values:

    Prelude Turtle> view empty  -- Outputs nothing
    Prelude Turtle>

Another way to say that is:

    view empty = return ()

The type of empty is:

    empty :: Shell a

The lower-case `'a'` is "polymorphic", meaning that it will type check as any type. That means that you can produce an `empty` stream of any type of value.

The next simplest function is `return`, which lets you take any value and transform it into a singleton `Shell` that emits just that one value:

    Prelude Turtle> view (return 1)
    1

Another way to say that is:

    view (return x) = print x

The type of `return` is:

    return :: a -> Shell a

Notice that this is the same `return` function we saw before. This is because `return` is overloaded and works with both `IO` and `Shell`.

You can also take any subroutine (`IO`) and transform it into a singleton `Shell`:

    Prelude Turtle> view (liftIO readline)
    ABC<Enter>
    Just (Line ABC)

Another way to say that is:

    view (liftIO io) = do x <- io
                          print x

The type of `liftIO` is:

    liftIO :: IO a -> Shell a

Once you have those primitive `Shell` streams you can begin to combine them into larger `Shell` streams. For example, you can concatenate two `Shell` streams using (`<|>`):

    view (return 1 <|> return 2)
    1
    2

Another way to say that is:

    view (xs <|> ys) = do view xs
                          view ys

The type of (`<|>`) is:

    (<|>) :: Shell a -> Shell a -> Shell a

In other words, you can concatenate two `Shell` streams of the same element type to get a new `Shell` stream, also of the same element type.

Let's try using (`<|>`) on two real streams:

    Prelude Turtle> view (ls "/tmp" <|> ls "/usr")
    FilePath "/tmp/.X11-unix"
    FilePath "/tmp/.X0-lock"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PKdhtXMmr18n"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-xHYcZ3zmN3Fv"
    FilePath "/tmp/tracker-gabriel"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PYi1hSlWgNj2"
    FilePath "/tmp/orbit-gabriel"
    FilePath "/tmp/ssh-vREYGbWGpiCa"
    FilePath "/tmp/.ICE-unix"
    FilePath "/usr/lib"
    FilePath "/usr/src"
    FilePath "/usr/sbin"
    FilePath "/usr/include"
    FilePath "/usr/share"
    FilePath "/usr/games"
    FilePath "/usr/local"
    FilePath "/usr/bin"

Finally, note that `Shell` implements the `IsString` interface, so a string literal will type-check as a `Shell` that emits a single `Text` value:

    Prelude Turtle> view "123"
    "123"
    Prelude Turtle> view (return "123")  -- Same thing
    "123"
    Prelude Turtle> view ("123" <|> "456")
    "123"
    "456"
    Prelude Turtle> view (return "123" <|> return "456")  -- Same thing
    "123"
    "456"

# Loops

This library also provides the `select` function for conveniently emitting a list of values:

    Prelude Turtle> view (select [1, 2, 3])
    1
    2
    3

We can use `select` to implement loops within a `Shell`:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                        -- #!/bin/bash
    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}  --
                                        --
    import Turtle                       --
                                        --
    example = do                        --
        x <- select [1, 2]              -- for x in 1 2; do
        y <- select [3, 4]              --     for y in 3 4; do
        liftIO (print (x, y))           --         echo \(${x},${y}\);
                                        --     done;
    main = sh example                   -- done

That will `print` every permutation of `'x'` and `'y'`:

    $ ./example
    (1,3)
    (1,4)
    (2,3)
    (2,4)

This uses the `sh` utility instead of `view`. The only difference is that `sh` doesn't print any values (since `print` is doing that already):

    sh :: Shell a -> IO ()

This trick isn't limited to `select`. You can loop over the output of any `Shell` by just binding its result. For example, this is how `view` loops over its argument:

    view :: Show a => Shell a -> IO ()
    view s = sh (do
        x <- s -- `x` ranges over every output of `s`
        liftIO (print x) )

You can also loop over a stream in a one-liner, still using `do` notation. Just insert semi-colons between statements:

    Prelude Turtle> -- for file in /tmp/*; do echo $file; done
    Prelude Turtle> sh (do file <- ls "/tmp"; liftIO (print file))
    FilePath "/tmp/.X11-unix"
    FilePath "/tmp/.X0-lock"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PKdhtXMmr18n"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-xHYcZ3zmN3Fv"
    FilePath "/tmp/tracker-gabriel"
    FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PYi1hSlWgNj2"
    FilePath "/tmp/orbit-gabriel"
    FilePath "/tmp/ssh-vREYGbWGpiCa"
    FilePath "/tmp/.ICE-unix"

# Folds

There are other ways you can consume a `Shell` stream. For example, you can `fold` the stream using predefined `Fold`s from Control.Foldl:

    Prelude Turtle> import qualified Control.Foldl as Fold
    Prelude Turtle Fold> fold (ls "/tmp") Fold.length
    9

    Prelude Turtle Fold> fold (ls "/tmp") Fold.head
    Just (FilePath "/tmp/.X11-unix")

    Prelude Turtle Fold> fold (ls "/tmp") Fold.list
    [FilePath "/tmp/.X11-unix",FilePath "/tmp/.X0-lock",FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PKd
    htXMmr18n",FilePath "/tmp/pulse-xHYcZ3zmN3Fv",FilePath "/tmp/tracker-gabriel
    ",FilePath "/tmp/pulse-PYi1hSlWgNj2",FilePath "/tmp/orbit-gabriel",FilePath
    "/tmp/ssh-vREYGbWGpiCa",FilePath "/tmp/.ICE-unix"]

You can also compute multiple things in a single pass over the stream:

    Prelude Turtle> fold (select [1..10]) ((,) <$> Fold.minimum <*> Fold.maximum)
    (Just 1,Just 10)

If you are interested in this feature, check out the documentation in Control.Foldl.

# Input and output

`turtle` comes with built-in support for the standard text streams.

For example, you can write to standard output using the `stdout` utility:

    stdout :: Shell Line -> IO ()
    stdout s = sh (do
        txt <- s
        liftIO (echo txt) )

`stdout` outputs each `Line` value on its own line:

    Prelude Turtle> stdout "Line 1"
    Line 1
    Prelude Turtle> stdout ("Line 1" <|> "Line 2")
    Line 1
    Line 2

Another useful stream is `stdin`, which emits one `Line` value per line of standard input:

    stdin :: Shell Line

Let's combine `stdin` and `stdout` to forward all input from standard input to standard output:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

                                        -- #!/bin/bash
    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}  --
                                        --
    import Turtle                       --
                                        --
    main = stdout stdin                 -- cat

If you run that it will continue to echo lines until you signal end of input using `Ctrl-D`:

    $ ./example.hs
    ABC<Enter>
    ABC
    Test<Enter>
    Test
    42<Enter>
    42
    <Ctrl-D>
    $

You can also read and write to files using the `input` and `output` utilities:

    Prelude Turtle> output "file.txt" ("Test" <|> "ABC" <|> "42")
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (input "file.txt")
    Test
    ABC
    42

# External commands

You can embed external shell commands as streams within your Haskell program.

For example, suppose that we want to use the system's built in `ls` command. We can just run:

    Prelude Turtle> stdout (inshell "ls" empty)
    .X11-unix
    .X0-lock
    pulse-PKdhtXMmr18n
    pulse-xHYcZ3zmN3Fv
    tracker-gabriel
    pulse-PYi1hSlWgNj2
    orbit-gabriel
    ssh-vREYGbWGpiCa
    .ICE-unix

This works because type of `inshell` is:

    inshell
        :: Text    -- Command line
        -> Shell Line  -- Standard input to feed to program
        -> Shell Line  -- Standard output produced by program

This means you can use `inshell` to embed arbitrary external utilities as first class streams within your Haskell program:

    Turtle Prelude> stdout (inshell "awk '{ print $1 }'" "123 456")
    123

You should also check out the `inproc` command, which is less powerful but safer since it decreases the likelihood of code injection or malformed commands:

    inproc
        :: Text        -- Program
        -> [Text]      -- Arguments
        -> Shell Line  -- Standard input to feed to program
        -> Shell Line  -- Standard output produced by program

Using `inproc`, you would write:

    Turtle Prelude> stdout (inproc "awk" ["{ print $1 }"] "123 456")
    123

# Patterns

You can transform streams using Unix-like utilities. For example, you can filter a stream using `grep`.

    Prelude Turtle> stdout (input "file.txt")
    Test
    ABC
    42
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (grep "ABC" (input "file.txt"))
    ABC

Let's look at the type of `grep`:

    grep :: Pattern a -> Shell Line -> Shell Line

The first argument of `grep` is actually a `Pattern`, which implements `IsString`. When we pass a string literal we just create a `Pattern` that matches the given literal.

`Pattern`s generalize regular expressions and you can use this table to roughly translate several regular expression idioms to `Pattern`s:

    Regex      Pattern
    =========  =========
    "string"   "string"
    .          dot
    e1 e2      e1 <> e2
    e1 | e2    e1 <|> e2
    e*         star e
    e+         plus e
    e*?        selfless (star e)
    e+?        selfless (plus e)
    e{n}       count n e
    e{m,n}     bounded m n e
    e{0,n}     upperBounded n e
    e?         optional e
    [xyz]      oneOf "xyz"
    [^xyz]     noneOf "xyz"

Here are some examples:

    Prelude Turtle> -- grep '^[[:digit:]]\+$' file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (grep (plus digit) (input "file.txt"))
    42
    Prelude Turtle> -- grep '^[[:digit:]]\+\|Test$' file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (grep (plus digit <|> "Test") (input "file.txt"))
    Test
    42

Note that `turtle`'s `grep` subtly differs from the traditional `grep` command. The `Pattern` you provide must match the entire line. If you want to match the interior of a line, you can use the `has` utility:

    Prelude Turtle> -- grep B file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (grep (has "B") (input "file.txt"))
    ABC

You can also use `prefix` or `suffix` to match the beginning or end of a string, respectively:

    Prelude Turtle> -- grep '^A' file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (grep (prefix "A") (input "file.txt"))
    ABC
    Prelude Turtle> -- grep 'C$' file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (grep (suffix "C") (input "file.txt"))
    ABC

`sed` also uses `Pattern`s, too, and is more flexible than Unix `sed`:

    Prelude Turtle> -- sed 's/C/D/g' file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (sed ("C" *> return "D") (input "file.txt"))
    Test
    ABD
    42
    Prelude Turtle> -- sed 's/[[:digit:]]/!/g' file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (sed (digit *> return "!") (input "file.txt"))
    Test
    ABC
    !!
    Prelude Turtle> import qualified Data.Text as Text
    Prelude Turtle> -- rev file.txt
    Prelude Turtle> stdout (sed (fmap Text.reverse (plus dot)) (input "file.txt"))
    tseT
    CBA
    24
    Prelude Turtle>

You can also use `Pattern`s by themselves to parse arbitrary text into more structured values:

    Prelude Turtle> let pair = do x <- decimal; " "; y <- decimal; return (x, y)
    Prelude Turtle> :type pair
    pair :: Pattern (Integer, Integer)
    Prelude Turtle> match pair "123 456"
    [(123,456)]
    Prelude Turtle> data Pet = Cat | Dog deriving (Show)
    Prelude Turtle> let pet = ("cat" *> return Cat) <|> ("dog" *> return Dog) :: Pattern Pet
    Prelude Turtle> match pet "dog"
    [Dog]
    Prelude Turtle> match (pet `sepBy` ",") "cat,dog,cat"
    [[Cat,Dog,Cat]]

See the Turtle.Pattern module for more details if you are interested in writing more complex `Pattern`s.

# Exception Safety

Sometimes you may want to acquire resources and ensure they get released correctly if there are any exceptions. You can use `Managed` resources to acquire things safely within a `Shell`.

You can think of a `Managed` resource as some resource that needs to be acquired and then released afterwards. Example: you want to create a temporary file and then guarantee it's deleted afterwards, even if the program fails with an exception.

Turtle.Prelude provides two `Managed` utilities for creating temporary directories or files:

    mktempdir
        :: FilePath          -- Parent directory
        -> Text              -- Directory name template
        -> Managed FilePath  -- Temporary directory

    mktemp
        :: FilePath                    -- Parent directory
        -> Text                        -- File name template
        -> Managed (FilePath, Handle)  -- Temporary file

You can acquire a `Managed` resource within a `Shell` with `using`:

    using :: Managed a -> Shell a

... and here is an example of creating a temporary directory and file within a `Shell`:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    main = sh (do
        dir       <- using (mktempdir "/tmp" "turtle")
        (file, _) <- using (mktemp dir "turtle")
        liftIO (print file) )

When you run the above script it will print out the name of the temporary directory and file:

    $ ./example.hs
    FilePath "/tmp/turtle15976/turtle15976"

... and you can verify that they were deleted afterwards:

    Turtle Prelude> view (find (has "turtle") "/tmp")
    Turtle Prelude> -- No results

As an exercise, try inserting an exception and verifying that the temporary: file and directory are still cleaned up correctly:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    main = sh (do
        dir       <- using (mktempdir "/tmp" "turtle")
        (file, _) <- using (mktemp dir "turtle")
        liftIO (print file)
        liftIO (die "Urk!") )

To learn more about `Managed` resources, read the documentation in Control.Monad.Managed.

# MonadIO

If you are sick of having type `liftIO` everywhere, you can omit it. This is because all subroutines in `turtle` are overloaded using the `MonadIO` type class, like our original `pwd` command where we first encountered the the `MonadIO` type:

    Prelude Turtle> :type pwd
    pwd :: MonadIO io => io Turtle.FilePath

This means this command is overloaded to run in any context that implements the `MonadIO` interface, including:

- `IO` (obviously)
- `Shell`
- `Managed`

You can tell if a type constructor like `Shell` implements `MonadIO` by clicking the link to the type constructor and looking for the instance list. There you will see a list of instances like:

    Monad Shell
    Functor Shell
    MonadPlus Shell
    Applicative Shell
    Alternative Shell
    MonadIO Shell
    MonadManaged Shell
    ...

These instances represent the overloaded functions associated with `Shell` and we can see from the list that `Shell` implements `MonadIO` so we can use `pwd` (or any other subroutine in this library) within a `Shell`.

However, not all subroutines in the Haskell ecosystem are overloaded in this way (such as `print`), so you will still occasionally need to wrap subroutines in `liftIO`.

# MonadManaged

All `Managed` operations are also overloaded in `turtle`, meaning that you can omit the `using` command. For example, we could change our last example to:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    main = sh (do
        dir       <- mktempdir "/tmp" "turtle"
        (file, _) <- mktemp dir "turtle"
        liftIO (print file)
        die "Urk!" )

Any command that is generalized over the `MonadManaged` interface can run in the following contexts:

- `Managed` (obviously)
- `Shell`

# Command line options

The Turtle.Options module lets you easily parse command line arguments, using either flags or positional arguments.

For example, if you want to write a `cp`-like script that takes two positional arguments for the source and destination file, you can write:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    -- cp.hs

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle
    import Prelude hiding (FilePath)

    parser :: Parser (FilePath, FilePath)
    parser = (,) <$> argPath "src"  "The source file"
                 <*> argPath "dest" "The destination file"

    main = do
        (src, dest) <- options "A simple `cp` script" parser
        cp src dest

If you run the script without any arguments, you will get an auto-generated usage output:

    $ ./cp.hs
    Usage: cp.hs SRC DEST

... and you can get a more descriptive output if you supply the `--help` flag:

    $ ./cp.hs --help
    A simple `cp` utility

    Usage: cp.hs SRC DEST

    Available options:
      -h,--help                Show this help text
      SRC                      The source file
      DEST                     The destination file

... and the script works as expected if you provide both arguments:

    echo "Test" > file1.txt
    $ ./cp.hs file1.txt file2.txt
    cat file2.txt
    Test

This works because `argPath` produces a `Parser`:

    argPath :: ArgName -> Optional HelpMessage -> Parser FilePath

... and multiple `Parser`s can be combined into a single `Parser` using operations from the `Applicative` type class since the `Parser` type implements the `Applicative` interface:

    instance Applicative Parser

You can also make any argument optional using the `optional` utility provided by `Applicative`:

    optional :: Alternative f => f a -> f (Maybe a)

For example, we can change our program to make the destination argument optional, defaulting to `stdout` if the user does not provide a destination:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle
    import Prelude hiding (FilePath)

    parser :: Parser (FilePath, Maybe FilePath)
    parser = (,) <$>           argPath "src"  "The source file"
                 <*> optional (argPath "dest" "The destination file")

    main = do
        (src, mDest) <- options "A simple `cp` utility" parser
        case mDest of
            Nothing   -> input src & stdout
            Just dest -> cp src dest

Now the auto-generated usage information correctly indicates that the second argument is optional:

    $ ./cp.hs
    Usage: cp.hs SRC [DEST]

    $ ./cp.hs --help
    A simple `cp` utility

    Usage: cp.hs SRC [DEST]

    Available options:
      -h,--help                Show this help text
      SRC                      The source file
      DEST                     The destination file

... and if we omit the argument the result goes to standard output:

    $ ./cp.hs file1.txt
    Test

We can use the `optional` utility because the `Parser` type also implements the `Alternative` interface:

    instance Alternative Parser

We can also specify arguments on the command lines using flags instead of specifying them positionally. Let's change our example to specify the input and output using the `--src` and `--dest` flags, using `-s` and `-d` as short-hands for the flags:

    #!/usr/bin/env stack
    -- stack --install-ghc runghc --package turtle

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle
    import Prelude hiding (FilePath)

    parser :: Parser (FilePath, FilePath)
    parser = (,) <$> optPath "src"  's' "The source file"
                 <*> optPath "dest" 'd' "The destination file"

    main = do
        (src, dest) <- options "A simple `cp` utility" parser
        cp src dest

This now lets us specify the arguments in terms of flags:

    $ ./cp
    Usage: cp.hs (-s|--src SRC) (-d|--dest DEST)

    $ ./cp --help
    A simple `cp` utility

    Usage: cp.hs (-s|--src SRC) (-d|--dest DEST)

    Available options:
      -h,--help                Show this help text
      -s,--src SRC             The source file
      -d,--dest DEST           The destination file

    $ ./cp --src file1.txt --dest file3.txt
    $ cat file3.txt
    Test

You can also provide `subcommand` functionality such as the following example which pretends to increase or decrease the system volume:

    {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}

    import Turtle

    data Command = IncreaseVolume Int | DecreaseVolume Int deriving (Show)

    parser :: Parser Command
    parser
        =   fmap IncreaseVolume
                (subcommand "up" "Turn the volume up"
                    (argInt "amount" "How much to increase the volume") )
        <|> fmap DecreaseVolume
                (subcommand "down" "Turn the volume down"
                    (argInt "amount" "How much to decrease the volume") )

    main = do
        x <- options "Volume adjuster" parser
        case x of
            IncreaseVolume n -> printf ("Increasing the volume by "%d%"\n") n
            DecreaseVolume n -> printf ("Decreasing the volume by "%d%"\n") n

This will provide `--help` output at both the top level and for each subcommand:

    $ ./options --help
    Volume adjuster

    Usage: options (up | down)

    Available options:
      -h,--help                Show this help text

      Available commands:
        up
        down

    $ ./options up --help
    Turn the volume up

    Usage: options up AMOUNT

    Available options:
      -h,--help                Show this help text
      AMOUNT                   How much to increase the volume

    $ ./options up 10
    Increasing the volume by 10

See the Turtle.Options module for more details and utilities related to parsing command line options. This module is built on top of the `optparse-applicative` library, which provides even more extensive functionality.

# Conclusion

By this point you should be able to write basic shell scripts in Haskell. If you would like to learn more advanced tricks, take the time to read the documentation in these modules:

- Turtle.Prelude
- Turtle.Format
- Turtle.Pattern
- Turtle.Shell
- Control.Foldl
- Control.Monad.Managed

If you have more questions or need help learning the library, ask a question on Stack Overflow under the `haskell-turtle` tag. For bugs or feature requests, create an issue on Github at https://github.com/Gabriel439/Haskell-Turtle-Library/issues

This library provides an extended suite of Unix-like utilities, but would still benefit from adding more utilities for better parity with the Unix ecosystem. Pull requests to add new utilities are highly welcome!

# FAQ

These are the most frequently asked questions from new users:

Question: My program hangs when I run a subprocess that reads from standard input. What do I do?

Answer: Make sure you compile your program with the `-threaded` flag

Question: How do I convert `FilePath` to `Text`?

Answer: Use `(`format` `fp`)`

Question: My program prints some extra output every time it starts. How do I remove it?

Answer: Compile your program and run the executable instead of interpreting the program.

Question: How do I transform a `(`Pattern` a)` into a `(`Pattern` [a])`?

Answer: Use `many` or `some` (both are from Control.Applicative and re-exported by Turtle)

Question: Why are `star` / `plus` not the same as `many` / `some`?

Answer: Because `[Char]` is a `String`, which is not the same thing as `Text`. `String` is deprecated in favor of `Text` in modern Haskell code, primarily for performance reasons and also because `Text` provides better support for Unicode.

Question: Some Haskell libraries still use `String`. How do I convert back and forth between `String` and `Text`?

Answer: Use `Data.Text.`pack`` and `Data.Text.`unpack``

Question: What's the easiest way to fail with a descriptive error message if a subprocess command like `proc`/`shell` returns a non-zero exit code? code?

Answer: Use `(`procs` cmd args input)` or `(`proc` cmd args input `.||.` `die` "Descriptive error message")` (or `shell` / `shells`, respectively)

Question: How do I close a resource that I acquired?

Answer: Use `runManaged`, `sh`, or (`<|>`) (all resources acquired in the left stream will close before beginning the right stream). Alternatively, use `with` to acquire a resource for a limited scope.